# Express how additional covariates in a multiple regression may affect the coefficient of a variable in a simple linear regression

In a simple linear regression

$$y=\alpha+\beta x + \varepsilon,$$

if $$x$$ is binary we can show that the slope coefficient ($$\beta$$) is equal to the difference in the outcome variable between levels of the predictor, i.e.

$$E(y\mid x) = \alpha+\beta x$$ so $$E(y\mid x=0) = \alpha$$ and $$E(y\mid x=1) = \alpha+\beta$$.

We then have: $$E(y\mid x=1) - E(y\mid x=0) = \beta.$$

However, in a multiple regression this usually is not the case. When we control other variables, some of the variation in $$y$$ originally explained by $$x$$ may be partitioned into the new covariate, which changes the estimate on $$\beta$$ so that the original relationship of $$E(y\mid x=1) - E(y\mid x=0) = \beta$$ will no longer be true.

I understand this intuitively and can show it with data, but I'm not sure how to express it mathematically with formulas (?).

An illustration using data in R:

set.seed(1)
# generate data
outcome    <- rnorm(n=100, mean = 10, sd = 1)
original_x <- rbinom(n=100, 1, prob=.5)
new_x      <- rnorm(n=100, mean = 10, sd = 10)

# Simple Linear Regression
coef(glm(outcome~original_x))[2]  # 0.08680985
mean(outcome[original_x==1])-mean(outcome[original_x==0]) # 0.08680985

# Multiple Regression
coef(glm(outcome~original_x + new_x))[2] # 0.1112377


Going to change up the notation a bit here, to match what you really did in your code. We are assuming that $$E(Y|X=x) = x\beta$$, so, given $$X = x$$,

$$Y = x\beta + \epsilon$$

where $$\beta = (\alpha, \beta_1)^T$$, and $$x$$ is an $$n \times 2$$ matrix with observations as rows. Implicitly, we are also assuming that $$x$$ is full-rank.

As I'm sure you know, the OLS estimate for $$\beta$$ is

$$\hat{\beta}_{OLS} = (x^Tx)^{-1}x^Ty$$

where $$y$$ is our observed response. What happens if we add a new regressor? Let the vector of observations for this new regressor be $$x_a$$. Then, we can define a new design matrix $$x_{new} = \begin{pmatrix} x & x_a\end{pmatrix}$$ which is $$n \times 3$$. Our new regression coefficients are

$$\hat{\beta}_{new} = (x_{new}^Tx_{new})^{-1}x_{new}^Ty = \begin{pmatrix} x^Tx & x^Tx_a\\ x_a^Tx & x_a^Tx_a\end{pmatrix}^{-1}\begin{pmatrix}x^Ty \\ x_a^Ty \end{pmatrix}$$

where we're now estimating three coefficients, namely $$\beta = (\alpha, \beta_1, \beta_2)$$. Notice, that the cross terms $$x^Tx_a$$ and $$x_a^Tx$$ are in a sense "responsible" for why the estimates for $$\alpha$$ and $$\beta_1$$ change from $$\hat{\beta}$$ to $$\hat{\beta}_{new}$$.

From here, I'd like to make a qualification to your statement. In most cases, you are right; your coefficient estimates change. In the case when the columns of $$x$$ are orthogonal to $$x_a$$, however, the vectors $$x^Tx_a$$ and $$x_a^Tx$$ are both matrices of different sizes, with all elements zero. Further algebraic trickery (taking the inverse of a $$2 \times 2$$ block matrix, which I won't do here) will reveal that

$$\hat{\beta}_{new} = \begin{pmatrix} (x^Tx)^{-1}(x^Ty)\\ (x_a^Tx_a)^{-1}x_a^Ty \end{pmatrix}$$

Therefore, in this case, each regressor "stays in its own lane"; thus, the addition or removal of a certain regressor will not change the estimates for the others.

• Thank you very much! I believe this is what I need. I think I know what you mean by this last part, that if the original predictor x and the new predictor xa were perfectly orthogonal then theoretically the coefficient on x wouldn't change, but to be clear could you clarify what you meant about "are both equal to the zero vector (of different lengths!)"? Dec 13, 2020 at 1:52
• I'm just saying that $x^Tx_a$ is the zero vector of size $3 \times 1$ and $x_a^Tx$ is the transpose of the zero vector of size $3 \times 1$. I've changed the wording to be clear. Dec 13, 2020 at 1:59
• Thank you, that helps! Dec 13, 2020 at 2:03