Consider the following fictitious data: set.seed(2022) x1 = rnorm(30, 350, 50) x2 = rnorm(30, 300, 70) Now do a two sample Welch t test of $H_0: \mu_1=\mu_2$ against $H_a: \mu_1 > \mu_2, using `t.test` in R: t.test(x1,x2, alt="gr") Welch Two Sample t-test data: x1 and x2 t = 2.6864, df = 55.074, p-value = 0.004764 alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is greater than 0 95 percent confidence interval: 13.8086 Inf sample estimates: mean of x mean of y 344.2034 307.5991 The P-value of the test is computed by looking in the upper tail of Student's t distribution with 55.074 degrees of freedom. [DF is adjusted downward from $n_1+n_2-2=58$ to compensate for the difference in sample variances.] 1 - pt(2.6864, 55.074) [1] 0.004764504 If you do a 2-sided t test, then the P-value is calculated by looking in the lower tail below $-2.6864$ and above $2.6864.$ [By using `$`-notation we show only the P-value.] t.test(x1, x2)$p.val [1] 0.009528523 Computed as follows: pt(-2.6864, 55.074) + 1 - pt(2.6864, 55.074) # left + right [1] 0.009529008 Alternatively, by the symmetry of the t distribution 2*pt(-2.6864, 55.074) $ Double left tail probability [1] 0.009529008 Quantities in the output to the test are rounded slightly to save space, so there is a tiny discrepancy with the P-values shown just above. However, if you get confused (easy to do), and ask for the wrong side, using parameter `alt="less"` in `t.test`, then you get a nonsense P-value near $1.$ t.test(x1, x2, alt="less")$p.val [1] 0.9952357